AI For Business Specialization

AI For Business Specialization — independent reviews, comparisons, pricing and step-by-step guides on Aizhi.

  • Application Lifecycle Framework

    Application Lifecycle Framework

    The Application Lifecycle Framework (ALF) was a project by the Eclipse Foundation that aimed to create a standardized, open-source system to allow different application lifecycle management (ALM) tools to work together more easily. The goal was to provide common protocols and integration services that would let software development tools from different vendors communicate and share data. However, the project failed to gain sufficient support from major industry players and was terminated in 2008.

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  • Instagram egg

    Instagram egg

    The Instagram egg is a photo of an egg posted by the account @world_record_egg on the social media platform Instagram. It became a global phenomenon and an internet meme within days of its publication on 4 January 2019. It is the second most-liked Instagram post and was the most-liked Instagram post from 14 January 2019 until 20 December 2022, when it was overtaken by Lionel Messi's post showing him and his teammates celebrating after Argentina won the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The owner of the account was revealed to be Chris Godfrey, a British advertising creative, who later worked with his two friends Alissa Khan-Whelan and CJ Brown on a Hulu commercial featuring the egg, intended to raise mental health awareness. == Background == The photo was originally taken by Serghei Platanov, who then posted it to Shutterstock on 23 June 2015 with the title "eggs isolated on white background". == History == On 4 January 2019, the @world_record_egg account was created, and posted an image of a bird egg with the caption, "Let's set a world record together and get the most liked post on Instagram. Beating the current world record held by Kylie Jenner (18 million)! We got this." Jenner's previous record, the first photo of her daughter Stormi, had garnered a total of 18.4 million likes. The post quickly reached 18.4 million likes in just under 10 days, becoming the most-liked Instagram post at the time. It then continued to rise over 45 million likes in the next 48 hours, surpassing the "Despacito" music video and taking the world record for the most-liked online post (on any media platform) in history. After the account became verified on 14 January 2019, the post rose in popularity and likes, which snowballed into coverage in various media outlets. By 18 March 2019, the post had accumulated over 53.3 million likes, nearly three times the previous record of 18.4 million. It posted frequent updates for a few days in the form of Instagram Stories. Alongside the like tally, as of January 2023 the post has 3.8 million comments. Several individuals tried to claim that they were the account's creator, the claims being dismissed by "the egg" on Instagram direct messages. On 3 February 2019, the creator of the Instagram egg was revealed by Hulu and The New York Times to be Chris Godfrey, a British advertising creative. Alissa Khan-Whelan, his colleague, was also outed. On 18 January 2019, the account posted a second picture of an egg, almost identical to the first one apart from a small crack at the top left. As of 25 February 2019, the post accumulated 11.8 million likes. On 22 January 2019, the account posted a third picture of an egg, this time having two larger cracks. In less than 25 minutes, the post accumulated 1 million likes, and by 25 February 2019, it had accumulated 9.5 million likes. On 29 January 2019, a fourth picture of an egg was posted to the account which has another large crack on the right hand side, attracting 7.6 million likes by 25 February 2019. On 1 February 2019, a fifth picture of an egg was posted with stitching like that of a football, referencing the upcoming Super Bowl. That post had accumulated 6.5 million likes by 25 February 2019. The account promised that it would reveal what was inside the egg on 3 February, on the subscription video on demand service Hulu. The Hulu Instagram egg reveal was used to promote an animation about a mental health campaign. A caption from the clip read, "Recently I've started to crack, the pressure of social media is getting to me. If you're struggling too, talk to someone." The video was later posted on the @world_record_egg Instagram account, and this post received over 33 million views by May 2019. As of May 2020, it had received over 41 million views. On 16 July 2019, Chris Godfrey (the creator of the account) was listed as one of the top 25 most influential people on the internet. On 20 December 2022, the record for the most-liked Instagram post was surpassed by a post from Argentine footballer Lionel Messi, showing him and his teammates celebrating after winning the 2022 FIFA World Cup with their national team. The world record egg responded to being overtaken in likes by Messi with "Today [Lionel Messi] has taken the crown, for now. But I'm still left with one question… Who is the greatest of all time – Cristiano Ronaldo or Leo Messi?" The account sold to Dubai-based investor Mustafa El Fishawy in April 2024 for an undisclosed seven-figure sum. Reed Smith, who advised Godfrey, Brown, and Khan-Whelan in the transaction, stated they opted to sell it to "focus on new ventures." On 3 June, @world_record_egg posted an egg with the flag of Palestine in support of the country during the Gaza war; the post's caption described it as an "Egg for Peace" and hoped to "set a new world record together and get the most liked post on Instagram for a good cause." == Reception == In response to breaking the world record for the most-liked Instagram post, the account's owner wrote "This is madness. What a time to be alive." Hours later, Jenner posted a video on Instagram of her cracking open an egg and pouring its yolk onto the ground, with the caption: "Take that little egg." Pundits pontificated on the meaning of the egg picture's dominance over social media's "first family". As Vogue observed, tapping a heart pictogram is easy, and eggs are "lovable". More pointedly: [T]he attention economy is a scam based on requiring little to no labor from both producer and consumer despite commanding the most space, and therefore value, in our digital lives... but it very well could be: As a metaphor for the fragility of the influencer ecosystem, the egg has broken the Internet. The significance of the event and its massive republishing are a topic of discussion. A University of Westminster researcher of internet memes compared it to the movement to name a scientific research vessel in the United Kingdom as Boaty McBoatface. The Instagrammer's success is a rare victory for the unpaid viral campaign on social media. "There is a bit of an anti-celebrity revolt here – 'look what we can do with a simple egg'" The researcher suggests that the accomplishment of becoming such a widely heralded unpaid viral post may become increasingly rare, as social networks rely more on paid and business promotion. The post's spread has been characterized as a populist backlash against "consumerism" and is seen by some as a triumph of community over celebrity. However, propelled by their popular success, the creators promised to release 'egg-centric' memorabilia. Hundreds of games based on the Instagram egg have appeared on Apple's App Store. The creators of the Instagram egg also reached a deal to promote Hulu.

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  • Codebook

    Codebook

    A codebook is a type of document used for gathering and storing cryptography codes. Originally, codebooks were often literally books, but today "codebook" is a byword for the complete record of a series of codes, regardless of physical format. == Cryptography == In cryptography, a codebook is a document used for implementing a code. A codebook contains a lookup table for coding and decoding; each word or phrase has one or more strings which replace it. To decipher messages written in code, corresponding copies of the codebook must be available at either end. The distribution and physical security of codebooks presents a special difficulty in the use of codes compared to the secret information used in ciphers, the key, which is typically much shorter. The United States National Security Agency documents sometimes use codebook to refer to block ciphers; compare their use of combiner-type algorithm to refer to stream ciphers. Codebooks come in two forms, one-part or two-part: In one-part codes, the plaintext words and phrases and the corresponding code words are in the same alphabetical order. They are organized similar to a standard dictionary. Such codes are half the size of two-part codes but are more vulnerable since an attacker who recovers some code word meanings can often infer the meaning of nearby code words. One-part codes may be used simply to shorten messages for transmission or have their security enhanced with superencryption methods, such as adding a secret number to numeric code words. In two-part codes, one part is for converting plaintext to ciphertext, the other for the opposite purpose. They are usually organized similarly to a language translation dictionary, with plaintext words (in the first part) and ciphertext words (in the second part) presented like dictionary headwords. The earliest known use of a codebook system was by Gabriele de Lavinde in 1379 working for the Antipope Clement VII. Two-part codebooks go back as least as far as Antoine Rossignol in the 1800s. From the 15th century until the middle of the 19th century, nomenclators (named after nomenclator) were the most used cryptographic method. Codebooks with superencryption were the most used cryptographic method of World War I. The JN-25 code used in World War II used a codebook of 30,000 code groups superencrypted with 30,000 random additives. The book used in a book cipher or the book used in a running key cipher can be any book shared by sender and receiver and is different from a cryptographic codebook. == Social sciences == In social sciences, a codebook is a document containing a list of the codes used in a set of data to refer to variables and their values, for example locations, occupations, or clinical diagnoses. == Data compression == Codebooks were also used in 19th- and 20th-century commercial codes for the non-cryptographic purpose of data compression. Codebooks are used in relation to precoding and beamforming in mobile networks such as 5G and LTE. The usage is standardized by 3GPP, for example in the document TS 38.331, NR; Radio Resource Control (RRC); Protocol specification.

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  • WhoSay

    WhoSay

    WhoSay was an American social media service and branding platform for celebrities and their fans. Founded in Los Angeles in 2010, with financing by Creative Artists Agency (CAA), Amazon.com and other investors, it is notable for allowing its users to retain ownership rights over the content that they post to their accounts, through copyright branding, and for enabling users to post content to other social media sites like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram and Tumblr simultaneously. WhoSay describes itself as a "social celebrity magazine" whose editorial team keeps its users informed about the latest celebrity and entertainment news. Clients such as Dylan McDermott and Chris Rock lauded the service for its ability to add content to multiple social network sites easily. Rock in particular has commented on its ease of use for those who are not part of a tech-savvy demographic, commenting, "It's perfect for someone that's not 25." WhoSay's competitors included theAudience, which is operated by the William Morris Endeavor. == History == WhoSay was founded in March 2010, by Steve Ellis and the Los Angeles-based talent agency Creative Artists Agency (CAA). It was financed through investments Amazon.com (who along with CAA, holds a minority stake in the company), Comcast, Greylock Partners, and High Peak Ventures. The company's main headquarters are in The New York Times Building in Manhattan, with additional headquarters in CAA's office building in the Silicon Beach area of Los Angeles, and in London. The company was founded to protect celebrities' intellectual property and enable the celebrities themselves to profit themselves from their own content through copyright branding. Its chief executive is co-founder Steve Ellis, who, after leaving Getty Images, was contacted by CAA, who were looking to resolve the issue of celebrities losing the rights to their own photos and videos when uploading them to social network sites. Ellis explained WhoSay's mission thus: "We work with people who are constantly being utilized by third parties for the wrong reasons. [The company was formed] to give celebrities and other influential people a set of tools to allow them to manage and control their presence in the digital world." In this way, WhoSay is likened by Ellis to "a People magazine by the people themselves who are in it." The company started slowly, until CAA client Tom Hanks signed onto WhoSay three months after the service's launch. The company continued to maintain a low profile for the first three years of operation, during which it accumulated a client list of 1,500 actors, musicians and artists. Clients are accepted by the service on an invitation-only basis, although they are not restricted to Creative Artists clients. Among them are Kelly Clarkson, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Paula Patton, Kevin Spacey, Jim Carrey, John Cusack, Bill Maher, Johnny Knoxville, Chelsea Handler, Eva Longoria, Spike Lee, Enrique Iglesias and Katie Couric. Clients are not charged for the service, and are given a share of any revenue that is generated by advertisements. They are also given the ability share in the database of e-mail addresses that come with registration, in order to communicate directly with fans. Actor Dylan McDermott was introduced to WhoSay by his agent, as a way of easily posting content to Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr and even China's Tencent social network with relative ease. McDermott comments, "When you put something out there, you can hit everything at one time. It makes it easy for me." Comedian Chris Rock has commented that WhoSay is ideal for people like him have developed difficulty in keeping track of different websites as they get older, saying, "It's perfect for someone that's not 25." In September 2013 WhoSay introduced a mobile application for consumers. By October 2013, the company's website attracted 12 million monthly visitors. In July 2014 Rob Gregory left his role as president of Newsweek's The Daily Beast to become WhoSay's chief revenue officer. Among his responsibilities are developing ways to monetize WhoSay's web and mobile products, such as premium advertising strategies and brand partnerships. WhoSay does not allow consumers to create accounts, nor does it include search features, making it difficult to access a celebrity's account unless a user is directed there from one of their other social pages. According to Ellis, consumers have enough social media choices, saying, "Frankly they don't really need the services that we provide, and there are a lot of very specific features built into our service that really only benefit someone who is of a high profile." By February 2015, WhoSay had amassed 4.8 million unique users, and expanded its accounts to companies that employ celebrities for branded content. Such companies include Lexus, which partnered with the company to promote a campaign in which actress Rosario Dawson, during the lead up to the 87th Academy Awards, released five short videos on her social media accounts. The videos feature her driving through Los Angeles in preparation for the grand opening of her pop-up store, which sells Studio One Eighty Nine, a clothing line tied to her foundation promoting African culture and content. That April, WhoSay partnered with Chevrolet's #BestDayEver social media campaign for April Fool's Day, enlisting Olivia Wilde, Norman Reedus, Alec Baldwin, Ian Somerhalder, and Nikki Reed to surprise students in four U.S. classrooms as their substitute teachers. For example, Baldwin, dressed as Abraham Lincoln, surprised students in an Occidental College class on U.S. Culture and Society. Other companies that WhoSay has partnered with include KFC, JCPenney, Dunkin' Donuts and Crest. In January 2018, the website was acquired by Viacom (now Paramount Global).

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  • AstroPay

    AstroPay

    AstroPay is a global digital wallet that provides users with a way to pay, send, and receive money. The app provides online payments, virtual and physical debit cards, peer-to-peer money transfers, and more. == History == AstroPay was founded in Uruguay in 2009 as a payment processing company. Over time, it expanded its services across Latin America, EMEA, and APAC. A significant milestone occurred in 2016, when AstroPay spun off dLocal, focusing on cross-border payments for emerging markets. dLocal became Uruguay's first unicorn and eventually went public through a successful IPO. In 2020, AstroPay spun off its payment processing services into a new entity, D24, to focus on mobile wallet for cross border. Between 2023 and 2024 the Company brought new leadership to guide its transition towards becoming a fully focused global digital multicurrency wallet where users save, send, and spend globally. This shift introduced enhanced features, including loyalty prepaid cards and multicurrency accounts. == Services == AstroPay offers three main products: AstroPay Wallet, AstroPay check-out, and AstroPay Platform. AstroPay Wallet is a digital wallet for consumers, where they have multicurrency accounts, prepaid card and marketplace. With AstroPay check-out, businesses can tap into AstroPay's wallet user base by accepting AstroPay as a payment method in their check-out options. Lastly, AstroPay Platform enables other businesses to use the AstroPay network to launch their own global wallet. == Brand endorsements, partnerships == AstroPay's marketing strategy has included the development of co-branded products with sports teams and other brand. The company sponsored Burnley Football Club during the 2018–19 Premier League season, renewing the partnership for the 2021–22 Premier League season when it became the club's official payment service partner. In August 2021, AstroPay entered into a partnership with the Wolverhampton Wanderers for the 2021-22 Premier League season, and the following year, became the team's shirt sponsor. Later, in September 2021, AstroPay expanded its partnership with Wolverhampton Wanderers, which included becoming the team's official payment partner and later, in 2023, co-launching a co-branded card. Other partnerships include Newcastle United in 2021 in the English Premier League. AstroPay made arrangements to ensure that branding and logo would be visible on the pitch-side LED advertising during Premier League matches. Furthermore, in June 2022, the company renewed it's partnership with Wolverhampton Wanderers for the 2022-23 Premier League season and launched its Wolves debit card in February 2023. Some other notable partnerships include: Universidad de Chile in 2024, Tottenham Hotspurs in 2023-25, and even a collaboration with Lionel Messi across all of Latin America. == Recent developments == AstroPay has refocused its strategy since 2023, pivoting from payment processing to concentrate on its global digital wallet. This move reflects a broader effort to redefine the company's market positioning by emphasizing global user-friendly financial services, while separating its identity from previous operations managed by dLocal and D24.

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  • ESign (India)

    ESign (India)

    Aadhaar eSign is an online electronic signature service in India to facilitate an Aadhaar holder to digitally sign a document. The signature service is facilitated by authenticating the Aadhaar holder via the Aadhaar-based e-KYC (electronic Know Your Customer) service. To eSign a document, one has to have an Aadhaar card and a mobile number registered with Aadhaar. With these two things, an Indian citizen can sign a document remotely without being physically present. == Procedure == The notification issued by Government of India in this regard stipulates the following procedure for the e-authentication using Aadhaar e-KYC services. Authentication of an electronic record by e-authentication technique, which shall be done by the applicable use of e-authentication, hash function, and asymmetric cryptosystem techniques, leading to issuance of digital signature certificate by Certifying Authority, a trusted third party service by subscriber's key pair generation, storing of the key pairs on hardware security module and creation of digital signature provided that the trusted third party shall be offered by the certifying authority (the trusted third party shall send application form and certificate signing request to the Certifying Authority for issuing a digital signature certificate to the subscriber), issuance of digital signature certificate by Certifying Authority shall be based on e-authentication, particulars given in the prescribed format, digitally signed verified information from Aadhaar e-KYC services and electronic consent of digital signature certificate applicant, the manner and requirements for e-authentication shall be as issued by the Controller from time to time, the security procedure for creating the subscriber's key pair shall be in accordance with the e-authentication guidelines issued by the Controller, the standards referred to in rule 6 of the Information Technology (Certifying Authorities) Rules, 2000 shall be complied with, in so far as they relate to the certification function of public key of Digital Signature Certificate applicant, and the manner in which information is authenticated by means of digital signature shall comply with the standards specified in rule 6 of the Information Technology (Certifying Authorities) Rules, 2000 in so far as they relate to the creation, storage and transmission of Digital Signature. == eSign Service Providers == Organisations and individuals seeking to obtain the eSigning Service can utilize the services of various service providers. There are empanelled service providers with whom organisations can register as an Application Service Prover after submitting the requisite documents, getting UAT access, building the application around the service and going through an IT Audit by an CERT-IN empanelled auditor. However, the process of registering as an Application Service Provider is cumbersome, and requires huge investments of time, money and resources in complying with the regulations and building a suitable application. Most organisations prefer using services of plug-n-play gateway providers who take the responsibility of complying with the regulations, hence simplifying the process for the market.

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  • SIPRNet

    SIPRNet

    The Secret Internet Protocol Router Network (SIPRNet) is "a system of interconnected computer networks used by the U.S. Department of Defense and the U.S. Department of State to transmit classified information (up to and including information classified SECRET) by packet switching over the 'completely secure' environment". It also provides services such as hypertext document access and electronic mail. SIPRNet is a component of the Defense Information Systems Network. Other components handle communications with other security needs, such as the NIPRNet, which is used for nonsecure communications, and the Joint Worldwide Intelligence Communications System (JWICS), which is used for Top Secret communications. == Access == According to the U.S. Department of State Web Development Handbook, domain structure and naming conventions are the same as for the open internet, except for the addition of a second-level domain, like, e.g., "sgov" between state and gov: openforum.state.sgov.gov. Files originating from SIPRNet are marked by a header tag "SIPDIS" (SIPrnet DIStribution). A corresponding second-level domain smil.mil exists for DoD users. Access is also available to a "...small pool of trusted allies, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and New Zealand...". This group (including the US) is known as the Five Eyes. SIPRNet was one of the networks accessed by Chelsea Manning, convicted of leaking the video used in WikiLeaks' "Collateral Murder" release as well as the source of the US diplomatic cables published by WikiLeaks in November 2010. == Alternate names == SIPRNet and NIPRNet are referred to colloquially as SIPPERnet and NIPPERnet (or simply sipper and nipper), respectively.

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  • G.9963

    G.9963

    Recommendation G.9963 is a home networking standard under development at the International Telecommunication Union standards sector, the ITU-T. It was begun in 2010 by ITU-T to add multiple-input and multiple-output (known as MIMO) capabilities to the G.hn standard originally defined in Recommendation G.9960. The standard is also known as "G.hn-mimo". As part of the family of G.hn standards, G.9963 was endorsed by the HomeGrid Forum.

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  • Zardoz (computer security)

    Zardoz (computer security)

    In computer security, the Security-Digest list, better known as the Zardoz list, was a semi-private full disclosure mailing list run by Neil Gorsuch from 1989 through 1991. It identified weaknesses in systems and gave directions on where to find them. It was a perennial target for computer hackers, who sought archives of the list for information on undisclosed software vulnerabilities. == Membership restrictions == Access to Zardoz was approved on a case-by-case basis by Gorsuch, principally by reference to the user account used to send subscription requests; requests were approved for root users, valid UUCP owners, or system administrators listed at the NIC. The openness of the list to users other than Unix system administrators was a regular topic of conversation, with participants expressing concern that vulnerabilities and exploitation details disclosed on the list were liable to spread to hackers. The circulation of Zardoz postings was an open secret among computer hackers, and mocked in a Phrack parody of an IRC channel populated by security experts. == Notable participants == Keith Bostic discussed BSD Sendmail vulnerabilities Chip Salzenberg discussed Peter Honeyman's posting of a UUCP worm, and shell script security Gene Spafford discussed VMS and Ultrix bugs, and relayed law enforcement enquiries about the Morris Worm Tom Christiansen discussed SUID shell scripts Chris Torek discussed devising exploits from general descriptions of vulnerabilities Henry Spencer discussed Unix security Brendan Kehoe discussed systems security Alec Muffett announced Crack, the Unix password cracker The majority of Zardoz participants were Unix systems administrators and C software developers. Neil Gorsuch and Gene Spafford were the most prolific contributors to the list.

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  • IEBus

    IEBus

    IEBus (Inter Equipment Bus) is a communication bus specification "between equipments within a vehicle or a chassis" of Renesas Electronics. It defines OSI model layer 1 and layer 2 specification. IEBus is mainly used for car audio and car navigations, which established de facto standard in Japan, though SAE J1850 is major in United States. IEBus is also used in some vending machines, which major customer is Fuji Electric. Each button on the vending machine has an IEBus ID, i.e. has a controller. Detailed specification is disclosed to licensees only, but protocol analyzers are provided from some test equipment vendors. Its modulation method is PWM (Pulse-Width Modulation) with 6.00 MHz base clock originally, but most of automotive customers use 6.291 MHz, and physical layer is a pair of differential signalling harness. Its physical layer adopts half-duplex, asynchronous, and multi-master communication with carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) for medium access control. It allows for up to fifty units on one bus over a maximum length of 150 meters. Two differential signalling lines are used with Bus+ / Bus− naming, sometimes labeled as Data(+) / Data(−). It is sometimes described as "IE-BUS", "IE-Bus," or "IE Bus," but these are incorrect. In formal, it is "IEBus." IEBus® and Inter Equipment Bus® are registered trademark symbols of Renesas Electronics Corporation, formerly NEC Electronics Corporation, (JPO: Reg. No.2552418 and 2552419, respectively). == History == In the middle of '80s, semiconductor unit of NEC Corporation, currently Renesas Electronics, started the study for increasing demands for automotive audio systems. IEBus is introduced as a solution for the distributed control system. In the late 1980s, several similar specifications, including the Domestic Digital Bus (D2B), the Japanese Home Bus (HBS), and the European Home System (EHS) are proposed by different companies or organizations. These were once discussed as IEC 61030, but it was withdrawn in 2006. IEBus is also a similar specification (refer to "Transfer signal format" section), but not listed in these criteria. As the result, IEBus becomes a de facto standard of car audio in Japan. Regarding the Domestic Digital Bus (D2B), it is re-defined as D2B Optical by Mercedes-Benz independently. As for Japanese Home Bus System (HBS), it is defined in 1988 as Home Bus System Standard Specification, ET-2101 by JEITA and REEA (Radio Engineering & Electronics Assiation) in Japan. It is being used by several Japanese air conditioner manufacturers (for example, M-Net from Mitsubishi and the P1/P2 or F1/F2 bus from Daikin). Fujitsu provided HBPC (Home Bus Protocol Controller) chip as MB86046B. But it is unclear whether Fujitsu (currently, Cypress) still manufactures this HBPC LSI as of 2018. Mitsumi Electric provides the MM1007 and MM1192 driver ICs for HBS. The HBS specification is also discussed in the Echonet Consortium. In 2014, a utility model patent for protocol converter from HBS to RS-485 is granted in China as "CN204006496U." Regarding the replacement of IEBus, a paper by Hyundai Autonet, currently Hyundai Mobis, describes as follows. "In communication methods for digital input capable amplifiers, Inter Equipment Bus (IEBus) was used in early times, but for now, Controller Area Network (CAN) is mainly used." == Protocol overview == A master talks to a slave. Each unit has a master and a slave address register. Only one device can talk on the bus at any given time. There is a pecking order for the types of communications which will take precedence over another. Each communication from master to slave must be replied to by the slave going back to the master with acknowledge bits each of those show ACK or NAK. If the master does not receive the ACK within a predefined time allowance for a mode, it drops the communication and returns to its standby (listen) mode. Detailed specification of OSI model layer 2 is disclosed to licensees only, but protocol analyzers are provided from some test equipment vendors. In 2012, one of Chinese manufacturer's patent is granted as "CN202841169U". An open-source software emulator called "IEBus Studio" exists on a repository of SourceForge, but the last update was on 2008-02-24. Another open-source analyzer software called "IEBusAnalyzer" is available on GitHub repository. Some hobbyist made some tools also. === Physical layer (OSI model layer 1) specification overview === From μPD6708 data sheet. and μPD78098B Subseries user's manual, hardware. Communication system Half-duplex asynchronous communication Multi-master system All the units connected to the IEBus can transfer data to the other units. Broadcast communication function (communication between one unit and multiple units) Normally, communication is individually carried out from one unit to another. By using the broadcast communication function, however, communication can be executed from one unit to plural units as follows: Group broadcast communication: Broadcast communication to group units Simultaneous broadcast communication: Broadcast communication to all units Effective transmission rate The effective transmission rate can be selected from the following three communication modes: Mixture of the plural of modes in the same bus line is not allowed. Correct communication between different base clock is not possible. Access control CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) The priority of occupying IEBus is as follows: «1» Broadcast communication takes precedence over individual communication. «2» The lower the master address, the higher the priority. Communication scale Number of units: 50 MAX. Cable length: 150 m MAX. (when a twisted pair cable is used) Load capacity: MAX. 8000 pF; between Bus+ and Bus−, (6.000000 MHz base clock) MAX. 7100 pF; between Bus+ and Bus−, (6.291456 MHz base clock) Terminating resistor: 120 Ω Logic level Logic 1: Low level. Voltage difference between Bus+ and Bus− is under 20mV Logic 0: High Level. Voltage difference between Bus+ and Bus− is over 120mV In-phase input voltage high: Bus+ ≤ (VDD-1.0) V, Bus− ≥ 1.0 V === Transfer signal format === From μPD6708 data sheet. and μPD78098B Subseries user's manual, hardware. This frame format is much similar to that of Domestic Digital Bus (D2B). All fields are MSB first. ==== Functions of Control bits ==== === Bit format === Each IEBus bit consists of four periods. Preparation period: The first or subsequent low-level (logic "1") period Synchronization period: Next high-level (logic "0") period Data period: Period indicating value of bit; ether low-level (logic "1") or high-level (logic "0") Stop period: The last low-level (logic "1") period Synchronization is done by each bit. Time lengths of the synchronization period and data period are almost the same. The time of the entire bits' and each bit's specification, related to the time of each period allocated to it, differ depending both on the type of the transmit bit and on whether the unit is the master or a slave unit. == Automotive manufacturers using IEBus == Each manufacturer has its own name, but it is not an alias of IEBus. Those are specifications of wire harness which comprise control cables based on IEBus, OSI model layer 3 and above communication protocol, audio cables, interconnection couplers, and so on. === Pioneer === Pioneer Corporation employed IEBus for its original branded car audio in early '90s. In its earlier stage, it was used just for control bus between the head unit in dashboard and the CD changer usually placed in trunk room. Nowadays, the specification includes connection between head units, navigation systems, rear speaker systems, and so on. IP-Bus: Wire harness specification. === Toyota === Pioneer Corporation pushed Toyota Motor Corporation to adopt IEBus as the genuine parts. In 1994, Toyota decided to employ IEBus for its genuine specification, but it is slightly different from that of Pioneer. It is named as AVC-LAN. AVC-LAN: Wire harness specification, based on mode 2. === Honda/Acura === Pioneer Corporation also pushed Honda Motor. Honda also decided to adopt IEBus as its genuine parts specification just after Toyota do so. GA-NET II: Wire harness specification. Honda Music Link: Honda genuine gadget to connect Apple Inc. products. A hobbyist made touch screen controller on Acura TSX for a Car PC installed in the trunk. === Sirius XM Satellite Radio === Sirius XM Satellite Radio is a satellite broadcasting radio operator in US. Its digital media receiver equipment utilizes IEBus. == Evaluation boards == === SAKURA board === GR-SAKUKRA board and GR-SAKURA-FULL board are Renesas official promotion boards of RX63N chip, which enables IEBus mode 0 and 1, but not mode 2, i.e. not available for Toyota AVC-LAN. They are an Arduino pin compatible low-price ones, suitable for hobbyists. Their color of printed circuit board is SAKURA in Japanese, which means cherry blossom. To e

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  • Social media measurement

    Social media measurement

    Social media measurement, also called social media controlling, is the management practice of evaluating successful social media communications of brands, companies, or other organizations. Key performance indicators may be measured by extracting information from social media channels, such as blogs, wikis, micro-blogs such as Twitter, social networking sites, or video/photo sharing websites, forums from time to time. It is also used by companies to gauge current trends in the industry. The process first gathers data from different websites and then performs analysis based on different metrics like time spent on the page, click through rate, content share, comments, text analytics to identify positive or negative emotions about the brand. Some other social media metrics include share of voice, owned mentions, and earned mentions. The social media measurement process starts with defining a goal that needs to be achieved and defining the expected outcome of the process. The expected outcome varies per the goal and is usually measured by a variety of metrics. This is followed by defining possible social strategies to be used to achieve the goal. Then the next step is designing strategies to be used and setting up configuration tools that ease the process of collecting the data. In the next step, strategies and tools are deployed in real-time. This step involves conducting Quality Assurance tests of the methods deployed to collect the data. And in the final step, data collected from the system is analyzed and if the need arises, it is refined on the run time to enhance the methodologies used. The last step ensures that the result obtained is more aligned with the goal defined in the first step. == Data Acquisition == Acquiring data from social media is in demand of an exploring the user participation and population with the purpose of retrieving and collecting so many kinds of data(ex: comments, downloads etc.). There are several prevalent techniques to acquire data such as Network traffic analysis, Ad-hoc application and Crawling Network Traffic Analysis - Network traffic analysis is the process of capturing network traffic and observing it closely to determine what is happening in the network. It is primarily done to improve the performance, security and other general management of the network. However concerned about the potential tort of privacy on the Internet, network traffic analysis is always restricted by the government. Furthermore, high-speed links are not adaptable to traffic analysis because of the possible overload problem according to the packet sniffing mechanism Ad-hoc Application - Ad-hoc application is a kind of application that provides services and games to social network users by developing the APIs offered by social network companies (Facebook Developer Platform). The infrastructure of Ad-hoc application allows the user to interact with the interface layer instead of the application servers. The API provides a path for application to access information after the user login. Moreover, the size of the data set collected vary with the popularity of the social media platform i.e. social media platforms having high number of users will have more data than platforms having less user base. Scraping is a process in which the APIs collect online data from social media. The data collected from Scraping is in raw format. However, having access to these types of data is a bit difficult because of its commercial value. Crawling - Crawling is a process in which a web crawler creates indexes of all the words in a web-page, stores them, then follows all the hyperlinks and indexes on that page and again stores them. It is the most popular technique for data acquisition and is also well known for its easy operation based on prevalent Object-Orientated Programming Language (Java or Python etc.). And most important, social network companies (YouTube, Flicker, Facebook, Instagram, etc.) are friendly to crawling techniques by providing public APIs == Applications == === For branding === Monitoring social media allows researchers to find insights into a brand's overall visibility on social media, to measure the impact of campaigns, to identify opportunities for engagement, to assess competitor activity and share of voice, and to detect impending crises. It can also provide valuable information about emerging trends and what consumers and clients think about specific topics, brands or products. This is the work of a cross-section of groups that include market researchers, PR staff, marketing teams, social-engagement, and community staff, agencies and sales teams. Several different providers have developed tools to facilitate the monitoring of a variety of social media channels - from blogging to internet video to internet forums. This allows companies to track what consumers say about their brands and actions. Companies can then react to these conversations and interact with consumers through social media platforms. === In government === Apart from commercial applications, social media monitoring has become a pervasive technique applied by public organizations and governments. Monitoring is a tradition within the public sector, and social-media monitoring provides a real-time approach to detecting and responding to social developments. Governments have come to realize the need for strategies to cope with surprises from the rapid expansion of public issues. Sobkowicz introduced a framework with three blocks of social-media opinion tracking, simulating and forecasting. It includes: real-time detection of emotions, topics and opinions information-flow modelling and agent-based simulation modeling of opinion networks Bekkers introduced the application of social media monitoring in the Netherlands. Public organizations in the Netherlands (such as the Tax Agency and the Education Ministry) have started to use social media monitoring to obtain better insights into the sentiments of target groups. On the one hand, the public sector will be enabled to provide timely and efficient answers to the public by using social media monitoring techniques, but on the other hand, they also have to deal with concerns about ethical issues such as transparency and privacy. == Quantifying social media == Social media management software (SMMS) is an application program or software that facilitates an organization's ability to successfully engage in social media across different communication channels. SMMS is used to monitor inbound and outbound conversations, support customer interaction, audit or document social marketing initiatives and evaluate the usefulness of a social media presence. It can be difficult to measure all social media conversations. Due to privacy settings and other issues, not all social media conversations can be found and reported by monitoring tools. However, whilst social media monitoring cannot give absolute figures, it can be extremely useful for identifying trends and for benchmarking, in addition to the uses mentioned above. These findings can, in turn, influence and shape future business decisions. In order to access social media data (posts, Tweets, and meta-data) and to analyze and monitor social media, many companies use software technologies built for business. These range from in-platform analytics dashboards to dedicated third-party platforms, which offer more advanced capabilities including cross-platform audience intelligence, sentiment analysis, and trend detection at scale. == Location-based == Most social media networks allow users to add a location to their posts (reference all of our feeds). The location can be classified as either 'at-the-location' or 'about-the-location'. "'At-the-location' services can be defined as services where location-based content is created at the geographic location. 'About-the-location' services can be defined as services which are referring to a particular location but the content is not necessarily created in this particular physical place." The added information available from geotagged (link to Geotagging article) posts means that they can be displayed on a map. This means that a location can be used as the start of a social media search rather than a keyword or hashtag. This has major implications for disaster relief, event monitoring, safety and security professionals since a large portion of their job is related to tracking and monitoring specific locations. == Technologies used == Various monitoring platforms use different technologies for social media monitoring and measurement. These technology providers may connect to the API provided by social platforms that are created for 3rd party developers to develop their own applications and services that access data. Facebook's Graph API is one such API that social media monitoring solution products would connect to pull data from. Some social media monitoring and analytics companies use calls to data providers each time an end-user d

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  • Social media reach

    Social media reach

    Social media reach is a media analytics metric that refers to the number of users who have come across a particular content on a particular social media platform. Social media platforms have their own individual ways of tracking, analyzing and reporting the traffic on each of the individual platforms. As these platforms are a main source of communication between companies and their target audiences, by conducting research, companies are able to utilize analytical information, such as the reach of their posts, to better understand the interactions between the users and their content. There are multiple underlying factors that will determine what shows up on a newsfeed or timeline. Algorithms, for example, are a type of factor that can alter the reach of a post due to the way the algorithm is coded, which can affect who sees a post and when. Other examples of factors that can impede the reach can include the time at which posts are made, as well as how frequent the posts are between one another. In comparison, an impression is the total number of circumstances where content has been shown on a social timeline, meanwhile, engagement looks at how people interact with the content that they see on a social platform such as like, share or retweet. == Reach on Facebook == Facebook has their own analytic platform which allows the user to see how other users are interacting with their posts, with the use of multiple metrics. This is not something the average user uses, but rather a tool that is used by pages or public figures. For example, Facebook pages that represent a business often look at the activity their posts have generated. There are three types of reach that can be looked at on the Facebook analytic platform. === Types of reach === ==== Organic Reach ==== This type of reach regards the number of distinct users that have seen a specific post on their feed. Organic reach, in other words is the number of people who have seen the post being analyzed on their Facebook newsfeed. Data gathered from this type of reach can give intel to those doing the analysis, such as the demographics of those who have seen the post. ==== Paid Reach ==== This type of reach regards the number of times that distinct users have come across sponsored posts, ads or content. In other words, paid reach is the number of times Facebook users have seen a post that has been paid for by a company. Data collected can give insight, to advertisers or marketers for example, on the activity based around the reach of their post. ==== Viral Reach ==== This type of reach regards the number of views by distinct users on posts that have been commented on or shared by their friends on Facebook. In other words, viral reach looks at the number of people who have seen a post after a friend of theirs commented or shared the original post, therefore it showed on their timeline. Viral reach can be looked at in terms of a collective number of times that the post has been on individual user's timelines. Data collected from viral reach can be used in multiple ways, for example, it can be used to analyze the type of content that gets shared or commented on and can be further used to compare to other posts. === Engaged users === This refers to the number of individual users who have clicked and interacted with a post on Facebook. == Reach on Twitter == Twitter gives access to any of their users to analytics of their tweets as well as their followers. Their dashboard is user friendly, which allows anyone to take a look at the analytics behind their Twitter account. This open access is useful for both the average user and companies as it can provide a quick glance or general outlook of who has seen their tweets. The way that Twitter works is slightly different than the way of Facebook in terms of the reach. On Twitter, especially for users with a higher profile, they are not only engaging with the people who follow them, but also with the followers of their own followers. The reach metric on Twitter looks at the quantity of Twitter users who have been engaged, but also the number of users that follow them as well. This metric is useful to see the if the tweets/content being shared on Twitter are contributing to the growth of audience on this platform. == Reach on Instagram == Instagram gives their users access to their reach, in the Instagram Insights section. Instagram insights can be used to learn more about an account's followers and performance. Reach indicates the total number of unique Instagram accounts that have seen your Instagram post or story. You can find this data by looking at each individual post insights. == Uses of reach == The reach can be a useful metric to analyze for marketers and advertisers. Social media is a platform that is used by marketers to directly target their intended audience with ease. These platforms not only allow marketers to get a better understanding of their audience, but also allow advertisers to insert their ads onto the timelines of specific users to later be able to conduct research to see the reach of their posts/content. The basic goal of marketers is to increase their reach as much as possible to impact bigger audiences of their dream customers and, in the end, make more sales. When doing organic social media marketing, using paid methods like ads or doing influencer marketing whether it is paid or free, it allows marketers to track the performance of their strategy and tweak it based on what works and what does not. == Analytics and reach == Social analytics looks at the data collected based on the interactions of users on social media platforms. A lot of information can be gathered which can provide intel based on user activities on social media. When looking into analytics in regard to social media, each company or group has a different goal in mind to engage their audience. At a glance, the three might seem as if they are very similar, however the differences between them are significant. There are many aspects that can be analyzed from the data gathered from social media platforms, depending on what is being observed, the correct metric would then be selected to further analyze. One example of the many metrics that can be used through social analytics is the reach. == Reach formula == To calculate social media reach one can use the following formula: R = I f ¯ {\displaystyle R={\frac {I}{\bar {f}}}} where R {\displaystyle R} — is social media reach, I {\displaystyle I} stands for the number of impressions, f ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {f}}} is the average frequency of impressions per user. f ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {f}}} represents the number of events when the ad is shown to a particular user. The average value should be calculated over the time period with stable settings of advertisement campaign. == Commenting For Better Reach == Commenting For Better Reach also known as "CFBR" is a widely used strategy for organically boosting post reach on social media platforms. Algorithms tend to favor posts with substantial likes and comments, granting them broader exposure compared to less engaging content. Primarily seen on LinkedIn, a platform geared toward professional networking and business connections, the use of CFBR signals active engagement aimed at enhancing post visibility. It is important to note that genuine and meaningful comments are key to effective engagement. Spammy or irrelevant comments not only detract from the conversation but may also limit a post's potential reach and impact.

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  • MobileNet

    MobileNet

    MobileNet is a family of convolutional neural network (CNN) architectures designed for image classification, object detection, and other computer vision tasks. They are designed for small size, low latency, and low power consumption, making them suitable for on-device inference and edge computing on resource-constrained devices like mobile phones and embedded systems. They were originally designed to be run efficiently on mobile devices with TensorFlow Lite. The need for efficient deep learning models on mobile devices led researchers at Google to develop MobileNet. As of June 2025, the family has five versions, each improving upon the previous one in terms of performance and efficiency. == Features == === V1 === MobileNetV1 was published in April 2017. Its main architectural innovation was incorporation of depthwise separable convolutions. It was first developed by Laurent Sifre during an internship at Google Brain in 2013 as an architectural variation on AlexNet to improve convergence speed and model size. The depthwise separable convolution decomposes a single standard convolution into two convolutions: a depthwise convolution that filters each input channel independently and a pointwise convolution ( 1 × 1 {\displaystyle 1\times 1} convolution) that combines the outputs of the depthwise convolution. This factorization significantly reduces computational cost. The MobileNetV1 has two hyperparameters: a width multiplier α {\displaystyle \alpha } that controls the number of channels in each layer. Smaller values of α {\displaystyle \alpha } lead to smaller and faster models, but at the cost of reduced accuracy, and a resolution multiplier ρ {\displaystyle \rho } , which controls the input resolution of the images. Lower resolutions result in faster processing but potentially lower accuracy. === V2 === MobileNetV2 was published in March 2019. It uses inverted residual layers and linear bottlenecks. Inverted residuals modify the traditional residual block structure. Instead of compressing the input channels before the depthwise convolution, they expand them. This expansion is followed by a 1 × 1 {\displaystyle 1\times 1} depthwise convolution and then a 1 × 1 {\displaystyle 1\times 1} projection layer that reduces the number of channels back down. This inverted structure helps to maintain representational capacity by allowing the depthwise convolution to operate on a higher-dimensional feature space, thus preserving more information flow during the convolutional process. Linear bottlenecks removes the typical ReLU activation function in the projection layers. This was rationalized by arguing that that nonlinear activation loses information in lower-dimensional spaces, which is problematic when the number of channels is already small. === V3 === MobileNetV3 was published in 2019. The publication included MobileNetV3-Small, MobileNetV3-Large, and MobileNetEdgeTPU (optimized for Pixel 4). They were found by a form of neural architecture search (NAS) that takes mobile latency into account, to achieve good trade-off between accuracy and latency. It used piecewise-linear approximations of swish and sigmoid activation functions (which they called "h-swish" and "h-sigmoid"), squeeze-and-excitation modules, and the inverted bottlenecks of MobileNetV2. === V4 === MobileNetV4 was published in September 2024. The publication included a large number of architectures found by NAS. Inspired by Vision Transformers, the V4 series included multi-query attention. It also unified both inverted residual and inverted bottleneck from the V3 series with the "universal inverted bottleneck", which includes these two as special cases. === V5 === MobileNetV5's architecture was published shortly after the release of Gemma 3n in June 2025. While the announcement stated a technical report on MobileNetV5 would be available soon, this has not yet materialised. The network is 10 times larger than the largest V4 variant.

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  • ServerNet

    ServerNet

    ServerNet is a switched fabric communications link primarily used in proprietary computers made by Tandem Computers, Compaq, and HP. Its features include good scalability, clean fault containment, error detection and failover. The ServerNet architecture specification defines a connection between nodes, either processor or high performance I/O nodes such as storage devices. == History == Tandem Computers developed the original ServerNet architecture and protocols for use in its own proprietary computer systems starting in 1992, and released the first ServerNet systems in 1995. Early attempts to license the technology and interface chips to other companies failed, due in part to a disconnect between the culture of selling complete hardware / software / middleware computer systems and that needed for selling and supporting chips and licensing technology. A follow-on development effort ported the Virtual Interface Architecture to ServerNet with PCI interface boards connecting personal computers. Infiniband directly inherited many ServerNet features. As of 2017, systems still ship based on the ServerNet architecture.

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  • CANaerospace

    CANaerospace

    CANaerospace is a higher layer protocol based on Controller Area Network (CAN) which has been developed by Stock Flight Systems in 1998 for aeronautical applications. == Background == CANaerospace supports airborne systems employing the Line-replaceable unit (LRU) concept to share data across CAN and ensures interoperability between CAN LRUs by defining CAN physical layer characteristics, network layers, communication mechanisms, data types and aeronautical axis systems. CANaerospace is an open source project, was initiated to standardize the interface between CAN LRUs on the system level. CANaerospace is continuously being developed further and has also been published by NASA as the Advanced General Aviation Transport Experiments Databus Standard in 2001. It found widespread use in aeronautical research worldwide. A major research aircraft that employs several CANaerospace networks for real-time computer interconnection is the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), a Boeing 747SP with a 2.5m astronomic telescope. CANaerospace is also frequently used in flight simulation and connects entire aircraft cockpits (i.e. in Eurofighter Typhoon simulators) to the simulation host computers. In Italy CANaerospace is used as UAV data bus technology. Furthermore, CANaerospace serves as communication network in several general aviation avionics systems. The CANaerospace interface definition closes the gap between the ISO/OSI layer 1 and 2 CAN protocol (which is implemented in the CAN controller itself) and the specific requirements of distributed systems in aircraft. It may be used as a primary or ancillary avionics network and was designed to meet the following requirements: Democratic network: CANaerospace does not require any master/slave relationships between LRUs or a "bus controller", thereby avoiding a potential single source of failure. Every node in the network has the same rights for participation in the bus traffic. Self-identifying message format: Each CANaerospace message contains information about the type of the data and the transmitting node. This allows the data to be unambiguously recognized at each receiving node. Continuous Message Numbering: Each CANaerospace message contains a continuously incremented number which allows coherent processing of messages in the receiving stations. Message Status Code: Each CANaerospace message contains information about the integrity of the data is conveying. This allows receiving stations to evaluate the quality of the received data and to react accordingly. Emergency Event Signaling: CANaerospace defines a mechanism that allows each node to transmit information about exception or error situations. This information can be used by other stations to determine the network health. Node Service Interface: As an enhancement to CAN, CANaerospace provides a means for individual stations on the network to communicate with each other using connection-oriented and connectionless services. Predefined CAN Identifier Assignment: CANaerospace offers a predefined identifier assignment list for normal operation data. In addition to the predefined list, user-defined identifier assignment lists may be used. Ease of Implementation: The amount of code to implement CANaerospace is very little by design in order to minimize the effort for testing and certification of flight safety critical systems. Openness to Extensions: All CANaerospace definitions are extendable to provide flexibility for future enhancements and to allow adaptions to the requirements of specific applications. Free Availability: No cost whatsoever apply for the use of CANaerospace. The specification can be downloaded from the Internet == Physical interface == To ensure interoperability and reliable communication, CANaerospace specifies the electrical characteristics, bus transceiver requirements and data rates with the corresponding tolerances based on ISO 11898. The bit timing calculation (baud rate accuracy, sample point definition) and robustness to electromagnetic interference are given special emphasis. Also addressed are CAN connector, wiring considerations and design guidelines to maximize electromagnetic compatibility. == Communication layers == The Bosch CAN specification itself allows messages being transmitted both periodically and aperiodically but does not cover issues like data representation, node addressing or connection-oriented protocols. CAN is entirely based on Anyone-to-Many (ATM) communication which means that CAN messages are always received by all stations in the network. The advantage of the CAN concept is inherent data consistency between all stations, the drawback is that it does not allow node addressing which is the basis for Peer-to-Peer (PTP) communication. Using CAN networks in aeronautical applications, however, demands a standard targeted to the specific requirements of airborne systems which implies that communication between individual stations in the network must be possible to enable the required degree of system monitoring. Consequently, CANaerospace defines additional ISO/OSI layer 3, 4 and 6 functions to support node addressing and unified ATM/PTP communication mechanisms. PTP communication allows to set up client/server interactions between individual stations in the network either temporarily or permanently. More than one of these interactions may be in effect at any given time and each node may be client for one operation and server for another at the same time. This CANaerospace mechanism is called "Node Service Concept" and allows i.e. to distribute system functions over several stations in the network or to control dynamic system reconfiguration in case of failure. The Node Service concept supports both connection-oriented and connectionless interactions like with TCP/IP and UDP/IP for Ethernet. Enabling both ATM and PTP communication for CAN requires the introduction of independent network layers to isolate the different types of communication. This is realized for CANaerospace by forming CAN identifier groups as shown in Figure 1. The resulting structure creates Logical Communication Channels (LCCs) and assigns a specific communication type (ATM, PTP) to each of the LCCs. User-defined LCCs provide the necessary freedom for designers and allow the implementation of CANaerospace according to the needs of specific applications. Figure 1: Logical Communication Channels for CANaerospace As a side effect, the CAN identifier groups in Figure 1 affect the priority of the message transmission in case of bus arbitration. The communication channels are therefore arranged according to their relative importance: Emergency Event Data Channel (EED): This communication channel is used for messages which require immediate action (i.e. system degradation or reconfiguration) and have to be transmitted with very high priority. Emergency Event Data uses ATM communication exclusively. High/Low Priority Node Service Data Channel (NSH/NSL): These communication channels are used for client/server interactions using PTP communication. The corresponding services may be of the connection-oriented as well as the connectionless type. NSH/NSL may also be used to support test and maintenance functions. Normal Operation Data Channel (NOD): This communication channel is used for the transmission of the data which is generated during normal system operation and described in the CANaerospace identifier assignment list. These messages may be transmitted periodically or aperiodically as well as synchronously or asynchronously. All messages which cannot be assigned to other communication channels shall use this channel. High/Low Priority User-Defined Data Channel (UDH/UDL): This channel is dedicated to communication which cannot, due to their specific characteristics, be assigned other channels without violating the CANaerospace specification. As long as the defined identifier range is used, the message content and the communication type (ATM, PTP) for these channels may be specified by the system designer. To ensure interoperability it is highly recommended that the use of these channels is minimized. Debug Service Data Channel (DSD): This channel is dedicated to messages which are used temporarily for development and test purposes only and are not transmitted during normal operation. As long as the defined identifier range is used, the message content and the communication type (ATM, PTP) for these channels may be specified by the system designer. == Data representation == The majority of the real-time control systems used in aeronautics employ "big endian" processor architectures. This data representation was therefore specified for CANaerospace as well. With big endian data representation, the most significant bit of any datum is arranged leftmost and transmitted first on CANaerospace as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2: "Big Endian" Data Representation for CANaerospace CANaerospace uses a self-identifying message

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