Yahoo! Babel Fish was a free Web-based machine translation service by Yahoo!. In May 2012 it was replaced by Bing Translator (now Microsoft Translator), to which queries were redirected. Although Yahoo! has transitioned its Babel Fish translation services to Bing Translator, it did not sell its translation application to Microsoft outright. As the oldest free online language translator, the service translated text or Web pages in 36 pairs between 13 languages, including English, Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish. The internet service derived its name from the Babel fish, a fictional species in Douglas Adams's book and radio series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy that could instantly translate languages. In turn, the name of the fictional creature refers to the biblical account of the confusion of languages that arose in the city of Babel. == History == On December 9, 1997, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and SYSTRAN S.A. launched AltaVista Translation Service at babelfish.altavista.com, which was developed by a team of researchers at DEC. In February 2003, AltaVista was bought by Overture Services, Inc. In July 2003, Overture, in turn, was taken over by Yahoo!. The web address for Babel Fish remained at babelfish.altavista.com until May 9, 2008, when the address changed to babelfish.yahoo.com. In 2012, the Web address changed again, this time redirecting babelfish.yahoo.com to www.microsofttranslator.com when Microsoft's Bing Translator replaced Yahoo Babel Fish. As of June 2013, babelfish.yahoo.com no longer redirects to the Microsoft Bing Translator. Instead, it refers directly back to the main Yahoo.com page.
Load file
A load file in the litigation community is commonly referred to as the file used to import data (coded, captured or extracted data from ESI processing) into a database; or the file used to link images. These load files carry commands, commanding the software to carry out certain functions with the data found in them. Load files are usually ASCII text files that have delimited fields of information. Such load files may have data about documents to be imported into a document management software such as Concordance or Summation. Or they may have the path or directory where images may reside so that the software can link such images to their corresponding records. Some database programs take one load file for importing images and another for importing data while others take only one load file for both pieces of information. OCR or Search-able Text which is considered "data" is also imported into most database programs via the same load files. Though some people prefer to load the OCR into their databases by running a separate command to search and find the desired text. Commonly used databases and their corresponding file extensions are: Summation (DII , CSV), Concordance (OPT, DAT), Sanction (SDT), IPRO (LFP), Ringtail (MDB) and DB/TextWorks (TXT).
Content reference identifier
A content reference identifier or CRID is a concept from the standardization work done by the TV-Anytime forum. It is or closely matches the concept of the Uniform Resource Locator, or URL, as used on the World-Wide Web: A unit of content, in a broadcast stream, can be referred to by its globally unique CRID in the same way that a webpage can be referred to by its globally unique URL on the web. The concept of CRID permits referencing contents unambiguously, regardless of their location, i.e., without knowing specific broadcast information (time, date and channel) or how to obtain them through a network, for instance, by means of a streaming service or by downloading a file from an Internet server. The receiver must be capable of resolving these unambiguous references, i.e. of translating them into specific data that will allow it to obtain the location of that content in order to acquire it. This makes it possible for recording processes to take place without knowing that information, and even without knowing beforehand the duration of the content to be recorded: a complete series by a simple click, a program that has not been scheduled yet, a set of programs grouped by a specific criterion... This framework allows for the separation between the reference to a given content (the CRID) and the necessary information to acquire it, which is called a “locator”. Each CRID may lead to one or more locators which will represent different copies of the same content. They may be identical copies broadcast in different channels or dates, or cost different prices. They may also be distinct copies with different technical parameters such as format or quality. It may also be the case that the resolution process of a CRID provides another CRID as a result (for example, its reference in a different network, where it has an alternative identifier assigned by a different operator) or a set of CRIDs (for instance, if the original CRID represents a TV series, in which case the resolution process would result in the list of CRIDs representing each episode). From the above it can be concluded that provided that a given content can belong to many groups (each possibly defined by distinctive qualities), it is possible that many CRIDs carry the same content. That is, several CRIDs may be resolved into the same locator. A CRID is not exactly a universal, unique and exclusive identifier for a given content. It is closely related to the authority that creates it, to the resolution service provider, and to the content provider in such a way that the same content may have different CRIDs depending on the field in which they are used (for example, a different one for each television operator that has the rights to broadcast the content). == Format == A CRID is specified much like URLs. In fact, a CRID is a so-called URI. Typically, the content creator, the broadcaster or a third party will use their DNS-names in a combination with a product-specific name to create globally unique CRIDs. That is, the syntax of a CRID is: crid://authority/data The authority field represents the entity that created the CRID and its format is that of a DNS name. The data field represents a string of characters that will unambiguously identify the content within the authority scope (it is a string of characters assigned by the authority itself). As an example, let's assume that BBC wanted to make a CRID for (all the programs of) the Olympics in China. It may have looked something like this crid://bbc.co.uk/olympics/2008/ This would be a group CRID, that is, a CRID representing a group of contents. Then, to refer to a specific event – such as the women's shot-put final – they could have used the following inside their metadata. crid://bbc.co.uk/olympics/2008/final/shotput/women Currently, four types of CRIDs are playing a major role in some unidirectional television networks: programme CRID, series CRID, group CRID, and recommendation CRID. One of the most important applications of CRIDs is the so-called series link recording function (SL) of modern digital video recorders (DVR, PVR). In turn, a locator is a string of characters that contains all the necessary information for a receiver to find and acquire a given content, whether it is received through a transport stream, located in local storage, downloaded as a file from an Internet server, or through a streaming service. For example, a DVB locator will include all the necessary parameters to identify a specific content within a transport stream: network, transport stream, service, table and/or event identifiers. The locators' format, as established in TV-Anytime, is quite generic and simple, and corresponds to: [transport-mechanism]:[specific-data] The first part of the locator's format (the transport mechanism) must be a string of characters that is unique for each mechanism (transport stream, local file, HTTP Internet access...). The second part must be unambiguous only within the scope of a given transport mechanism and will be standardized by the organism in charge of the regulation of the mechanism itself. For instance, a DVB locator to identify a content within the transport stream of networks that follow this standard would be: dvb://112.4a2.5ec;2d22~20121212T220000Z—PT01H30M which would indicate a content (identified by the string “2d22”) that airs on a channel available on a DVB network identified by the address “112.4a2.5ec” (network “112”, transport stream “4a2” and service “5ec”), on 12 December 2012 at 10 p.m. and with a duration of 90 minutes. == The location resolution process == The location resolution process is the procedure by which, starting from the CRID of a given content, one or several locators of that content are obtained. Resolving a CRID can be a direct process, which leads immediately to one or many locators, or it may also happen that in the first place one or many intermediate CRIDs are returned, which must undergo the same procedure to finally obtain one or several locators. This procedure involves some information elements, among which we find two structures named resolving authority record (RAR) and ContentReferencingTable, respectively. Consulting them repeatedly will take the receiver from a CRID to one or many locators that will allow it to acquire the content. The RAR table The RAR table is one or many data structures that provide the receiver, for each authority that submits CRIDs, information on the corresponding resolution service provider. Among other things, it informs about which mechanism is used to provide information to resolve the CRIDs from each authority. That is, one or many RAR records must exist for each authority that indicate the receiver where it has to go to resolve the CRIDs of that particular authority. For example, in the record of the figure (expressed by means of a XML structure, according to the XML Schema defined in the TV-Anytime) there is an authority called “tve.es”, whose resolution service provider is the entity “rtve.es”, available on the URL "http://tva.rtve.es/locres/tve", which means there is resolution information in that URL. These RAR records will have reached the receiver in an indefinite form, unimportant for the TV-Anytime specification, which will depend on the specific transport mechanism of the network to which the receiver is connected. Each family of standards that regulates distribution networks (DVB, ATSC, ISDB, IPTV...) will have previously defined such procedure, which will be used by devices certified according to those standards. The ContentReferencingTable table The second structure involved in the location resolution process is a proper resolution table which, given a content's CRID, returns one or several locators that enable the receiver to access an instance of that content, or one or many CRIDs that allow it to move forward in the resolution process. The figure shows an example of this second structure, an XML document according to the specifications of the XML Schema defined in TV-Anytime. In it, several sections are included (
Web series
A web series, also known as a short-form series or web show, is a collection of short scripted or unscripted online videos released on the Internet (i.e., World Wide Web), generally in episodic form. A single installment of a web series can be called a webisode or an episode. The scale of a web series is small, and a typical episode can be anywhere from 3 to 15 minutes long (though some may run up to 20 minutes). Web series first emerged in the mid-1990s and became more prominent in the early 2000s. Web series are distributed online on video-sharing websites and apps, such as YouTube, Vimeo, and TikTok, and can be watched on devices such as smartphones, tablets, desktops, laptops, and Smart TVs (or television sets connected to the Internet with a media streaming device). They can also be released on social media platforms. Because of the nature of the Internet, a web series may be interactive and immersive. Web series are classified as new media. Web series are different from streaming television series, as the latter are designed to be watched on streaming platforms such as Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, or Hotstar, with the streaming services offering original productions made for and by them, as well as acquiring the rights to distribute licensed content. The length of a streaming television series episode is 30 to 60 minutes (runtimes can also be longer). Although the design of a web series can be similar to that of a television series, its development and production do not entail the same financial investment required for a television series. The popularity of some web series, however, has led to them being optioned for television. Web series differ from short-form content in that the latter are vertical videos specifically designed for smartphone viewing and intended for fast-paced consumption, with runtimes typically ranging from less than one minute to three minutes. There are film festivals for web series, like Webfest Berlin, NYC Web Fest, LA Web Fest, and Vancouver Web Fest. Awards organizations have also been established to celebrate excellence in web series, such as the Streamys, Webbys, IAWTV Awards, and Indie Series Awards. Most major award ceremonies have also created web series and digital media award categories, including the Emmy Awards and the Canadian Screen Awards. == History == === 1990s === In April 1995, "Global Village Idiots", an episode of the reality-based program Rox on public access cable television in Bloomington, Indiana, was uploaded to the Internet, making Rox the first show distributed via the web. The same year, Scott Zakarin created The Spot, an episodic online story that integrated photos, videos, and blogs into the storyline. Likened to Melrose Place-on-the-Web, The Spot featured a rotating cast of characters playing trendy twenty-somethings who rented rooms in a fabled Santa Monica, California beach house called "The Spot". The Spot earned Infoseek's "Cool Site of the Year," an award which later became the Webby. In January 1999, Showtime licensed the animated sci-fi web series WhirlGirl, making it the first independently produced web series licensed by a national television network. In February 1999, the show premiered simultaneously on Showtime and online. The character occasionally appeared on Showtime, for example, hosting a "Lethal Ladies" programming block, but spent most of her time online, appearing in 100 webisodes. === 2000s === As broadband bandwidth increased in speed and availability, delivering high-quality video over the Internet became a reality. In the early 2000s, the Japanese anime industry began broadcasting original net animation (ONA), a type of original video animation (OVA) series, on the Internet. Early examples of the ONA series include Infinite Ryvius: Illusion (2000), Ajimu (2001), and Mahou Yuugi (2001). In 2000, The Brothers Chaps launched the Adobe Flash-created web series Homestar Runner. After being put on hiatus in 2010, it returned in 2014. In 2002, Matt Jolly (better known as "Krinkels") released the first episode of Madness Combat to Newgrounds. The show is still ongoing, with the latest episode "Madness Combat 12: Contravention" released on Twitch in September 2024. In 2003, Microsoft launched MSN Video, offering NBC-related content. Its web series, Weird TV 2000, a spin-off of the syndicated television series Weird TV, featured dozens of shorts, comedy sketches, and mini-documentaries produced exclusively for MSN Video. The video-sharing site YouTube was launched in early 2005, allowing users to share television programs. YouTube co-founder Jawed Karim said the inspiration for YouTube first came from Janet Jackson's role in the 2004 Super Bowl incident, when her breast was exposed during her performance, and later from the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, which led to the idea of a video-sharing site. From 2003 to 2006, many independent web series gained significant popularity, most notably the science fiction series Red vs. Blue by Rooster Teeth. The series was distributed independently via online portals YouTube and Revver, as well as the Rooster Teeth website, acquiring over 100 million social media views during its run. (Rooster Teeth would eventually create the computer-animated web series RWBY in 2013.) In 2004, the adult-animated series Salad Fingers was created, which amassed a cult following. The comedy show The Burg, hailed as the internet's first sitcom and starring Kelli Giddish and Lindsey Broad, rapidly gained an audience and press attention before its creators signed a creation deal with Michael Eisner. The drama Sam Has 7 Friends, which ran in the summer and fall of 2006, was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award and was temporarily removed from the Internet when it was also acquired by Eisner. In 2004–2005, Spanish producer Pedro Alonso Pablos recorded a series of video interviews featuring actors and directors such as Guillermo del Toro, Santiago Segura, Álex de la Iglesia, and Keanu Reeves, which were distributed through his own website. lonelygirl15, California Heaven, "The Burg", and SamHas7Friends also gained popularity during this time, acquiring audiences in the millions. (Science fiction thriller lonelygirl15 was so successful that it secured a sponsorship deal with Neutrogena in 2007.) In 2004, Stewart St. John, executive producer and head writer of 1990s webisodies The Spot, revived the brand for online audiences as The Spot (2.0), with a new cast, and as a separate soap opera on Sprint PCS Vision-enabled cell phones, creating the first American mobile phone series. St. John and partner Todd Fisher produced over 2,500 daily videos of the mobile soap, driving story lines across platforms to its web counterpart. In 2007, the creators of lonelygirl15 followed up on the show's success with KateModern, a comedy-drama series that debuted on social network Bebo, and took place in the same fictional universe as their previous show. Big Fantastic created and produced the soap opera Prom Queen, financed and distributed by Michael Eisner's production firm Vuguru, and debuted the series on MySpace. Vuguru partnered with Mark Cuban's channel HDNet to release All-for-nots, a mockumentary series by The Burg creators Kathleen Grace and Thom Woodley, which debuted at the SXSW Festival in 2008. These web series highlighted interactivity with the audience in addition to the narrative on relatively low budgets. In contrast, the eight-episode show Sanctuary, starring actor/producer Amanda Tapping, cost $4.3 million to produce. Both Sanctuary and Prom Queen were nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award. Award-winning producer/director Marshall Herskovitz created the drama Quarterlife, which debuted on MySpace and was later distributed on NBC. In 2008, major television studios began releasing web series, such as the ABC comedy show Squeegies, the NBC sci-fi show Gemini Division, and the Bravo reality series The Malan Show. Warner Bros. relaunched The WB as an online network beginning with original mystery web series, Sorority Forever, created and produced by Big Fantastic and executive produced by McG. Meanwhile, MTV announced a new original web series created by Craig Brewer, $5 Cover, that brought together the indie music world and new media expansion. Joss Whedon created, produced, and self-financed musical comedy-drama Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog starring Neil Patrick Harris and Felicia Day. Big Fantastic wrote and produced Foreign Body, a mystery web series that served as a prequel to Robin Cook's novel of the same name. Beckett and Goodfried founded a new Internet studio, EQAL, and produced a spin-off of lonelygirl15 titled LG15: The Resistance. The mainstream press began to provide coverage. In the United Kingdom, KateModern ended its run on Bebo. Bebo also hosted a six-month-long reality travel show, The Gap Year, produced by Endemol UK, and produced an interactive sci-fi drama Kirill for
MX1 Ltd
MX1 was a global media services provider founded in July 2016 from a merger between digital media services companies, RR Media and SES Platform Services, and a wholly owned subsidiary of global satellite owner and operator, SES. In September 2019, MX1 was merged into the SES Video division and the MX1 brand dropped. Broadcast and streamed content management, playout, distribution, and monetisation services from both MX1 and SES Video are now provided under the SES name. Before merger with SES, MX1 claimed to manage more than 5 million media assets and every day to distribute more than 3,600 TV channels, manage the playout of over 525 channels, distribute content to more than 120 subscription VOD platforms, and deliver over 8,400 hours of online video streaming and more than 620 hours of premium sports and live events. == Services == MX1 video and media services are provided through a single hybrid, cloud and on-premises solution, called MX1 360, which enables video and media solutions including content and metadata management, archiving, localisation solutions, channel playout, VOD, online video (OTT) and content distribution. Services provided by MX1 include: === Content aggregation === Acquisition of content via satellite, fibre or IP with satellite downlinking services (for encryption, re-encryption and re-muxing into different platforms), fibre reception from any location, and IP reception via the public Internet. Live sports, news and entertainment production (including in-studio, outside broadcasting, and SNG) with mobile live streaming and video contribution. === Content management === Digital mastering including scanning, conversion, restoration, quality control and localisation/versioning. Content archiving including secure, cloud and on-premises digital storage, and disaster recovery services. Metadata packaging and platform validation to enhance content discovery, searchability and cataloguing. Playout preparation and delivery to any format. === Channel origination and playout === Managed TV channel origination in SD, HD and UHD including 3D graphics, and video and audio effects, using cloud-based solution accessible from any location, with live content insertion and operation, and 24/7 monitoring. === Online video/VOD services === Content preparation and management for online video, VOD, live streaming services and Online video platforms using an ultra-high capacity content delivery network, including subscriber management, apps, DRM, social media, advertising tools, monetisation tools, metadata management, and analytics. === Content delivery === Delivery in all video formats over hybrid distribution network of satellite (using over 150 platforms), fibre (60 digital media hubs worldwide) and the Internet with complete downlink/uplink turnaround services and OTT content delivery. == Locations == MX1 has 16 offices worldwide, the most recent opened in March 2017 in Seoul, South Korea, as well as media centres in UK (London), US (Hawley, PA), Israel (Emeq Ha'Ela), Romania (Bucharest) and at the headquarters in Unterföhring near Munich, Germany. In the early part of 2017, significant upgrades were made to MX1's US media centre in Hawley, Pennsylvania, including expanding its capabilities for US based and global content aggregation, management and delivery to support US broadcasters and content providers. == History == RRsat was founded in Israel by David Rivel, an electronics, computers and communications engineer in 1981 as a communications provider, and in 2014 changed its name to RR Media to reflect its expanding global service offering. In 2015, RR Media acquired Eastern Space Systems (ESS), a Romanian provider of content management and content distribution services and satellite transmission services provider, SatLink Communications. Digital Playout Centre GmbH (DPC) was founded in 1996 by German media company, Kirch to provide playout, multiplexing, satellite uplinks and other broadcast services to Kirch's Premiere pay-TV platform (now Sky Deutschland) and other private and public German broadcasters. In 2005, SES Astra (a subsidiary of SES Global, now SES) bought 100% of DPC from Premiere and the company renamed ASTRA Platform Services GmbH (APS). In 2012, to reflect the company's expanding worldwide reach, the name was changed to SES Platform Services. In February 2016, it was announced that SES Platform Services had agreed, subject to regulatory approvals, to purchase RR Media. The acquisition was completed in July 2016, with the merged company renamed MX1 and headed by Avi Cohen, the former CEO of RR Media. In October 2017, Cohen was replaced as CEO by Wilfred Urner, the former CEO of SES Platform Services, CEO of SES subsidiary, HD+ and Head of Media Platforms and Product Development, SES Video.
Sayre's paradox
Sayre's paradox is a dilemma encountered in the design of automated handwriting recognition systems. A standard statement of the paradox is that a cursively written word cannot be recognized without being segmented and cannot be segmented without being recognized. The paradox was first articulated in a 1973 publication by Kenneth M. Sayre, after whom it was named. == Nature of the problem == It is relatively easy to design automated systems capable of recognizing words inscribed in a printed format. Such words are segmented into letters by the very act of writing them on the page. Given templates matching typical letter shapes in a given language, individual letters can be identified with a high degree of probability. In cases of ambiguity, probable letter sequences can be compared with a selection of properly spelled words in that language (called a lexicon). If necessary, syntactic features of the language can be applied to render a generally accurate identification of the words in question. Printed-character recognition systems of this sort are commonly used in processing standardized government forms, in sorting mail by zip code, and so forth. In cursive writing, however, letters comprising a given word typically flow sequentially without gaps between them. Unlike a sequence of printed letters, cursively connected letters are not segmented in advance. Here is where Sayre's Paradox comes into play. Unless the word is already segmented into letters, template-matching techniques like those described above cannot be applied. That is, segmentation is a prerequisite for word recognition. But there are no reliable techniques for segmenting a word into letters unless the word itself has been identified. Word recognition requires letter segmentation, and letter segmentation requires word recognition. There is no way a cursive writing recognition system employing standard template-matching techniques can do both simultaneously. Advantages to be gained by use of automated cursive writing recognition systems include routing mail with handwritten addresses, reading handwritten bank checks, and automated digitalization of hand-written documents. These are practical incentives for finding ways of circumventing Sayre's Paradox. == Avoiding the paradox == One way of ameliorating the adverse effects of the paradox is to normalize the word inscriptions to be recognized. Normalization amounts to eliminating idiosyncrasies in the penmanship of the writer, such as unusual slope of the letters and unusual slant of the cursive line. This procedure can increase the probability of a correct match with a letter template, resulting in an incremental improvement in the success rate of the system. Since improvement of this sort still depends on accurate segmentation, however, it remains subject to the limitations of Sayre's Paradox. Researchers have come to realize that the only way to circumvent the paradox is by use of procedures that do not rely on accurate segmentation. == Directions of current research == Segmentation is accurate to the extent that it matches distinctions among letters in the actual inscriptions presented to the system for recognition (the input data). This is sometimes referred to as “explicit segmentation”. “Implicit segmentation,” by contrast, is division of the cursive line into more parts than the number of actual letters in the cursive line itself. Processing these “implicit parts” to achieve eventual word identification requires specific statistical procedures involving hidden Markov models (HMM). A Markov model is a statistical representation of a random process, which is to say a process in which future states are independent of states occurring before the present. In such a process, a given state is dependent only on the conditional probability of its following the state immediately before it. An example is a series of outcomes from successive casts of a die. An HMM is a Markov model, individual states of which are not fully known. Conditional probabilities between states are still determinate, but the identities of individual states are not fully disclosed. Recognition proceeds by matching HMMs of words to be recognized with previously prepared HMMs of words in the lexicon. The best match in a given case is taken to indicate the identity of the handwritten word in question. As with systems based on explicit segmentation, automated recognition systems based on implicit segmentation are judged more or less successful according to the percentage of correct identifications they accomplish. Instead of explicit segmentation techniques, most automated handwriting recognition systems today employ implicit segmentation in conjunction with HMM-based matching procedures. The constraints epitomized by Sayre's Paradox are largely responsible for this shift in approach.
Nanonetwork
A nanonetwork or nanoscale network is a set of interconnected nanomachines (devices a few hundred nanometers or a few micrometers at most in size) which are able to perform only very simple tasks such as computing, data storing, sensing and actuation. Nanonetworks are expected to expand the capabilities of single nanomachines both in terms of complexity and range of operation by allowing them to coordinate, share and fuse information. Nanonetworks enable new applications of nanotechnology in the biomedical field, environmental research, military technology and industrial and consumer goods applications. Nanoscale communication is defined in IEEE P1906.1. == Communication approaches == Classical communication paradigms need to be revised for the nanoscale. The two main alternatives for communication in the nanoscale are based either on electromagnetic communication or on molecular communication. === Electromagnetic === This is defined as the transmission and reception of electromagnetic radiation from components based on novel nanomaterials. Recent advancements in carbon and molecular electronics have opened the door to a new generation of electronic nanoscale components such as nanobatteries, nanoscale energy harvesting systems, nano-memories, logical circuitry in the nanoscale and even nano-antennas. From a communication perspective, the unique properties observed in nanomaterials will decide on the specific bandwidths for emission of electromagnetic radiation, the time lag of the emission, or the magnitude of the emitted power for a given input energy, amongst others. For the time being, two main alternatives for electromagnetic communication in the nanoscale have been envisioned. First, it has been experimentally demonstrated that is possible to receive and demodulate an electromagnetic wave by means of a nanoradio, i.e., an electromechanically resonating carbon nanotube which is able to decode an amplitude or frequency modulated wave. Second, graphene-based nano-antennas have been analyzed as potential electromagnetic radiators in the terahertz band. === Molecular === Molecular communication is defined as the transmission and reception of information by means of molecules. The different molecular communication techniques can be classified according to the type of molecule propagation in walkaway-based, flow-based or diffusion-based communication. In walkway-based molecular communication, the molecules propagate through pre-defined pathways by using carrier substances, such as molecular motors. This type of molecular communication can also be achieved by using E. coli bacteria as chemotaxis. In flow-based molecular communication, the molecules propagate through diffusion in a fluidic medium whose flow and turbulence are guided and predictable. The hormonal communication through blood streams inside the human body is an example of this type of propagation. The flow-based propagation can also be realized by using carrier entities whose motion can be constrained on the average along specific paths, despite showing a random component. A good example of this case is given by pheromonal long range molecular communications. In diffusion-based molecular communication, the molecules propagate through spontaneous diffusion in a fluidic medium. In this case, the molecules can be subject solely to the laws of diffusion or can also be affected by non-predictable turbulence present in the fluidic medium. Pheromonal communication, when pheromones are released into a fluidic medium, such as air or water, is an example of diffusion-based architecture. Other examples of this kind of transport include calcium signaling among cells, as well as quorum sensing among bacteria. Based on the macroscopic theory of ideal (free) diffusion the impulse response of a unicast molecular communication channel was reported in a paper that identified that the impulse response of the ideal diffusion based molecular communication channel experiences temporal spreading. Such temporal spreading has a deep impact in the performance of the system, for example in creating the intersymbol interference (ISI) at the receiving nanomachine. In order to detect the concentration-encoded molecular signal two detection methods named sampling-based detection (SD) and energy-based detection (ED) have been proposed. While the SD approach is based on the concentration amplitude of only one sample taken at a suitable time instant during the symbol duration, the ED approach is based on the total accumulated number of molecules received during the entire symbol duration. In order to reduce the impact of ISI a controlled pulse-width based molecular communication scheme has been analysed. The work presented in showed that it is possible to realize multilevel amplitude modulation based on ideal diffusion. A comprehensive study of pulse-based binary and sinus-based, concentration-encoded molecular communication system have also been investigated.